小瓢虫传媒

听

The thesis aims to analyse the invocation of neutrality in the private sector as a basis for a general restriction of religious manifestations in the workplace. The research focuses on the compatibility of such restrictive neutrality with European law on religious freedom and non-discrimination. The first part consists of a theoretical analysis of the three concepts at the heart of this trend: neutrality, religion, and the company. The second part proposes a categorisation of neutral companies, based on the various motivations pursued by private employers in their reference to this form of religious neutrality. The reference to neutrality is alternatively internal or external, and instrumental or ideological. We show that for each figure of the neutral company there is a specific legal response as to the legitimacy and proportionality of restrictions based on neutrality, from the point of view of European law on religious freedom and non-discrimination.

(fre)听La th猫se vise 脿 analyser la tendance relative 脿 l'invocation de la neutralit茅 au sein de l'entreprise priv茅e, en tant que fondement d'une restriction g茅n茅rale des expressions religieuses sur le lieu de travail. La question de recherche porte sur la compatibilit茅 d'une telle neutralit茅 restrictive avec le droit europ茅en de la libert茅 de religion et de la non-discrimination des travailleurs. Mobilis茅e dans la perspective des relations entre les 脡glises et l鈥櫭塼at, la neutralit茅 est l鈥檕bjet d鈥檜ne discussion anim茅e, dont une abondante litt茅rature se fait l鈥櫭ヽho, tant du point de vue de sa mod茅lisation en philosophie politique que de sa concr茅tisation en droit positif. Cette incertitude entourant la neutralit茅 de l鈥櫭塼at n鈥檃 pourtant pas emp锚ch茅 certaines entreprises priv茅es, en particulier en Belgique et en France, de s鈥檃ppuyer sur cette notion pour d茅ployer une politique restrictive de gestion des expressions religieuses sur le lieu de travail. La r茅f茅rence 脿 la neutralit茅 au sein de certaines entreprises priv茅es suscite d猫s lors des questionnements au moins aussi fondamentaux que ceux qui concernent la neutralit茅 de l鈥櫭塼at. Celle-ci vient en particulier r茅interroger les notions de libert茅 et de non-discrimination religieuses, jusqu鈥檃lors comprises comme constituant les deux balises essentielles en mati猫re de gestion juridique des expressions religieuses des travailleurs priv茅s. Face 脿 la question r茅currente de la compatibilit茅 entre cette neutralit茅 restrictive d鈥檈ntreprise et la libert茅 et la non-discrimination religieuses, cette 茅tude vise 脿 prendre du recul afin de comprendre les motivations et implications du recours 脿 cette forme de neutralit茅 religieuse par certains employeurs priv茅s. Une telle prise de distance implique en premier lieu que soient juridiquement r茅interrog茅s les concepts au c艙ur de cette tendance : la neutralit茅, la religion et l鈥檈ntreprise. Constituant la premi猫re partie de notre 茅tude, ces d茅veloppements th茅oriques, loin de clarifier d茅finitivement ces trois concepts-cl茅s, nous permettront en tout cas d鈥檈nvisager plus ais茅ment les implications juridiques concr猫tes d鈥檜ne telle invocation de la neutralit茅 au sein de certaines entreprises. La seconde partie consistera ainsi en une proposition de cat茅gorisation des entreprises neutres, tenant compte des dimensions alternativement interne ou externe, et instrumentale ou id茅ologique du recours 脿 la neutralit茅 religieuse par l鈥檈mployeur. Nous montrerons qu鈥櫭� chaque figure de l鈥檈ntreprise neutre correspond une r茅ponse juridique sp茅cifique quant 脿 la l茅gitimit茅 et 脿 la proportionnalit茅 des restrictions fond茅es sur la neutralit茅, du point de vue du droit europ茅en de la libert茅 et de la non-discrimination religieuses.

听

Paradoxically, the increasing interest for spirituality in organizations seems to be explained by the emphasis of performance, in connection with the employees鈥� wellbeing. Organizations may commodify, codify and regulate not only emotions but also spirituality. Having scrutinized the definitions given by the scientific literature in a non-exhaustive way, and the consensus emerging around this phenomenon, the point of view adopted in this contribution intends to question the ethical coherence of the spiritual referents, and to measure both misappropriations and promises. This point leads us to the following question: what safeguards could be implemented to ensure that leaders do not acquire absolute power and influence within organizations, especially through the shadow zones of spirituality, considering themselves as heroes rather than servant. From this perspective, and since the unity of the human person cannot be adequately understood without taking into account the role of the narrative configuration, we will explore how the texts 鈥� religious texts as well as expressions of culture - enable the manager /leader to reconfigure himself, by the way of an imaginary elaboration, of the possibility of being and meaning. Hence, change is no longer a question of manipulative management, but means that the connected narratives are working in order to foster a community at work. Emerging from this critical analysis is our proposal for educating at responsible and creative ethical-spiritual management, as a precondition for innovation. It could operate through discernment and beyond managerial rationality, in a mutual and fertile relation, enhancing the sense of the work, the individual and the community. A reflection on the issues of personal development and the search for meaning in a good life, with and for others, should not lose sight of the problem of social justice and equity. In this respect, some angles of theological reflection will be put forward, notably through the reading of the category of the 鈥渟igns of the times鈥�, in order to appreciate in a critical way, the phenomenon under study. How can theology, thanks to its own resources, draw from the pluralization of the spiritual phenomenon, both generally and in the managerial field. Conversely, we question how the symbolic space of management welcomes to be irrigated by the concept of vulnerability. Part of the current of "weak theology", vulnerable management is a condition of responsible decision-making, and modalities allowing it to be transformed into deliberation and capacity for action.

听

In Belgium, the Constitution provides that the State finances the recognized religions (1831) and non-confessional organisations (1993). In that context, it is striking to see that current Belgian Law doesn鈥檛 formally impose any criteria or procedure of religions鈥� financing in a legal text. Those elements only come from unwritten rules. After a general overview of the constitutional and conventional principles surrounding the public funding of religions and non-confessional organisations, the doctoral research investigates two problematics. Firstly, it analyses the constitutionality and conventionality of a formal concretization of conditions of funding. Secondly, it focuses on the constitutionality of a creation of formal criteria to distribute the funds between the different recognized religions such as it exists in Spain and Italy.

(fre)听Apr猫s un retour sur les principes et fondements qui entourent le financement public tel qu鈥檌l existe en Belgique 脿 l鈥櫭ゞard des cultes depuis 1831 et 脿 l鈥櫭ゞard des organisations philosophiques non confessionnelles depuis 1993, la th猫se 茅tudie deux probl茅matiques que soul猫ve fondamentalement ce financement au regard des principes de droit constitutionnel, europ茅en et international qui s鈥檌mposent 脿 l鈥橢tat belge, ainsi qu鈥檈u 茅gard 脿 notre soci茅t茅 de plus en plus multiconfessionnelle, pluraliste et s茅cularis茅e. La premi猫re difficult茅 r茅sulte de l鈥檃bsence, en droit belge, de crit猫res de reconnaissance et de financement public des cultes et des organisations philosophiques non confessionnelles. Seule existe une 芦 pratique administrative 禄 du Ministre de la Justice, dont cinq crit猫res ont 茅t茅 identifi茅s 脿 l鈥檕ccasion de r茅ponses 脿 des questions parlementaires et qui, n鈥櫭﹖ant inscrits dans aucun instrument formel, sont d茅pourvus de force juridique contraignante. Dans la th猫se, ces cinq crit猫res voient leur constitutionnalit茅 et leur conventionnalit茅 v茅rifi茅es au regard de la jurisprudence belge, europ茅enne et internationale afin d鈥檈nvisager s鈥檌ls pourraient un jour valablement se retrouv茅s inscrits dans la loi, voire dans la Constitution afin de conditionner l鈥檕btention de la reconnaissance et du financement par l鈥橢tat. A c么t茅 de ces cinq crit猫res, est 茅tudi茅e l鈥櫭﹙entualit茅 de consacrer un 芦 sixi猫me 禄 crit猫re de financement, lequel existe d茅j脿 脿 l鈥檈ndroit de bon nombre de destinataires d鈥檜n financement public en droit belge (partis politiques, acteurs culturels, enseignement libre subventionn茅, etc.), 脿 savoir le crit猫re exigeant le respect des droits de l鈥檋omme et des principes d茅mocratiques comme condition de financement. Par le biais d鈥檜ne 茅tude transversale de ce crit猫re, il est propos茅 d鈥櫭﹖endre le respect de ce dernier aux cultes et aux organisations philosophiques non confessionnelle et ce, dans le respect du principe de l鈥檌nd茅pendance r茅ciproque entre l鈥橢tat et les communaut茅s religieuses et philosophiques. La seconde difficult茅 que soul猫ve actuellement le financement public des cultes et des organisations non confessionnelles en Belgique r茅sulte de l鈥檃bsence de crit猫re de r茅partition entre les cultes et organisations philosophiques non confessionnelles qui sont reconnus et b茅n茅ficient donc dudit financement. La r茅partition continue 脿 锚tre effectu茅e suivant une pratique h茅rit茅e du XIX猫me si猫cle qui pr茅sumait que l鈥檈nti猫ret茅 de la population 茅tait catholique. Cette pratique se justifiait ais茅ment 脿 l鈥櫭﹑oque puisque le recensement de 1846 r茅v茅la que plus de 99% de la population belge 茅tait catholique. Pareille supposition n鈥檈st d茅sormais plus d茅fendable eu 茅gard aux r茅cents chiffres qui r茅v猫lent qu鈥檃ujourd鈥檋ui, seul un Belge sur deux serait catholique et pr猫s d鈥檜n tiers de la population ne se rattacherait 脿 aucune confession. Pour pallier cette difficult茅, un exercice de droit compar茅 est effectu茅 entre la Belgique, l鈥橢spagne et l鈥橧talie afin de proposer que soit impl茅ment茅 en droit belge un syst猫me semblable 脿 celui de l鈥檃ssignation fiscale espagnole ou italienne, lequel permet au contribuable de d茅cider, par le biais de sa fiche d鈥檌mp么t, de l鈥檌dentit茅 de la confession qu鈥檌l souhaite voir financ茅e au moyen de fonds publics. Ce syst猫me permet 茅galement aux contribuables qui ne voudraient financer aucune confession d鈥檕pter pour des 芦 fins d鈥檜tilit茅s sociales 禄 auxquelles le financement sera alors r茅troc茅d茅. Si les syst猫mes espagnol et italien restent 鈥� 脿 l鈥檌nstar de tout syst猫me juridique 鈥� perfectibles, ils montrent 脿 tout le moins la possibilit茅 de rendre l鈥檃llocation du financement plus 茅galitaire, plus d茅mocratique et davantage en ad茅quation avec les r茅alit茅s religieuses et soci茅tales. Au terme de cette analyse, la th猫se invite l鈥橢tat belge 脿 un remaniement du syst猫me de financement des cultes et des organisations philosophiques non confessionnelles, en vue d鈥檜n meilleur respect des exigences de droit constitutionnel, europ茅en et international qui s鈥檌mposent 脿 la Belgique.

听

Since the end of the 1990ties, legislators of many States, essentially of Eastern Europe and ex-USSR, requested the assistance of the Commission for Democracy through Law 鈥� Venice Commission 鈥� and of the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights 鈥� ODIHR 鈥� in order to draft their Laws on Freedom of Religion or Belief and on relations towards religions. Thereby, these two institutions wrote about thirty opinions, each of them commenting a draftlaw according to the criteria of the International Standards of Human Rights, among which the Right to Freedom of Religion or Belief. From their experiences, they edited guidelines (in 2004 and in 2014) directing any legislator wishing to draft a law on Freedom of Religion or Belief conformingly to the Human Rights. This study focuses on the right of religious or belief communities to legal status 鈥� especially legal personality 鈥�, other privileges and the conditions to obtain them, according to the commented draftlaws. After analysing the working modalities of the legislative assistance by the Venice Commission and the ODIHR, this study discovers and presents the pecularities of the implementation of the International Standards by these institutions to stipulations of draftlaws concerning religions or beliefs, the influence of their work on national legislations and their indirect impact on the International Standards themselves. The background question of this study permits us to state that the support to the right to Freedom of Religion or Belief by Venice Commission and ODIHR assistance to the national legislators drafting of laws is not an imperialism of Western worldviews as it promotes actually the official goals of these instances, i.e. democracy, peace and human rights, thus the manifestation and expression of any worldview, religion or belief in the usual limits of the respect of others. In order to answer that question, this study took into account the religious and cultural context of the States concerned by international legislative assistance, checking on the one hand its link or distance with the international standard of freedom or belief and on the other hand the corelation between a State鈥檚 history of religions-State relations and its desire or necessity to request international assistance to draft laws on freedom of religion or belief respectuous of international standards.

听

This study is built around some characteristics of fundamentalism, isolated after reviewing the legal, psychology and sociology literature, as well as the common use of the term "fundamentalism". So are mainly studied a tendency to moral entrepreneurship embodied in the believer's identification with beliefs that are at the heart of its identity and in moralizing of exo-groups, as well as a heightened emotivity. Taking as its starting point the various reactions that can be observed within a democratic society towards intense - even radical - forms of religiosity, the purpose of the research is various forms of moral crusade (or enterprise) condemning certain behavior considered unacceptable. In this way are successively studied the issue of aggressive or controversial speech (hate speech and american fighting words), the receipt of such speech (defamation and american emotional distress), and the legal figure of conscientious objection. Finally, the last chapter is devoted to the analysis of public policies to act or react regarding radical or fundamentalist phenomena, more specifically educational policies.

(fre) Cette 茅tude est construite autour de traits caract茅ristique du fondamentalisme, isol茅s apr猫s avoir analys茅 les litt茅ratures juridique, psychologique et sociologique, ainsi que l鈥檜sage commun du vocable 芦 fondamentalisme 禄. Sont principalement 茅tudi茅s une tendance 脿 l鈥檈ntreprenariat moral concr茅tis茅e par une identification du croyant aux convictions qui forment le c艙ur de son identit茅 et par une moralisation des exo-groupes, ainsi qu鈥檜ne hyper茅motivit茅 exacerb茅e. Prenant pour point de d茅part les diverses r茅actions pouvant 锚tre observ茅es au sein d鈥檜ne soci茅t茅 d茅mocratique au regard de formes intenses 鈥� voire radicales 鈥� de religiosit茅, la recherche a pour objet diverses formes d鈥檈ntreprises morales condamnant certains comportements jug茅s inacceptables. Ainsi sont successivement 茅tudi茅s l鈥櫭﹎ission de discours agressifs ou pol茅miques (incitation 脿 la violence, la discrimination ou la haine et fighting words am茅ricains), la r茅ception de tels discours (diffamation et emotional distress am茅ricain), et la figure juridique de l鈥檕bjection de conscience. Le dernier chapitre est enfin consacr茅 脿 l鈥檃nalyse de dispositifs publics permettant d鈥檃gir ou de r茅agir au regard de ph茅nom猫nes radicaux ou fondamentalistes, plus sp茅cifiquement les dispositifs 茅ducatifs.